Writing Abstracts
As a list of references is being compiled, it gradually becomes apparent that some items are of central importance to a particular research field. The writing of very brief indicative abstracts, perhaps 10 lines for each document, will help you identify (and remember) the important features of the article. The abstract should include:

1. A short statement, showing the purpose for which the article was written.
2. A description of how the research was carried out. This might include an analytic method, a design technique, a system concept, experimental methods, collection of data, tests etc.
3. An analysis of the main results.
4. The conclusions, including an indication of the logic or interpretation involved in their production.
5. Pointers to future research work and applications.
Within that structure, there are a set of skills involved in actually extracting the required information.
6. Read the paper over several times to obtain an overview of its contents.
7. Mark material for inclusion in the structure of the abstract.
8. Produce brief entries under a number of headings.

Writing Reviews

Reviews are written for different purposes, three of these are:

• as a free-standing account of a research in a given subject field.
  You might, for example, do this at the start of a project. This type of review might contain ideas about future directions for your own work at the start of a project, and perhaps containing speculation on the direction that the work might take;
• as an introduction to an experimental paper.
• as the introduction to a thesis.

There are a number of different ways in which a review can be written:

1. The impulsive method. Here you just set pen to paper, without prior organisation. The attractions of spontaneity are offset by faults in logic, style and language. Time is required for revision.
2. The piecemeal approach. You start with a knowledge of the required shape for the review, but the insertion of information in distinct pieces leads to a loss of coherence and some pieces prove difficult to fit in.
3. The inverted pyramid. You present the conclusions first and then proceed to assimilate a diversity of information in justifying those conclusions. Although perhaps difficult to write, the product is easy to follow.
4. The systematic approach. A skeleton of the review is critically prepared and then clothed with information. Easy to write, the product is well balanced between its parts.
It is a considerable advantage for the writer, and the reader, if methods (3) or (4) are used!

Writing a Report

A significant amount of applied research in electrical and electronic engineering is first published in the form of a report. Reports are documents which contain results and/or progress of development work. A report is typically very detailed and addresses a current problem or development aspect.

Technical reports are of two kinds:

1. Unclassified Reports - generally available - examples are reports published by funding organisations and academic institutions, and government departments.
2. Classified Reports - restricted availability (usually within an organisation or company) - often about military or commercial developments

"Research information has limited value unless it is collected and published in a usable form and presented to those who may apply it. For these reasons never assume that your job is finished when the experimental or analytical phase has been completed. It is also your responsibility as an engineer or scientist to show promptly that your results are worthwhile and that you have reason to believe the field will be advanced by your efforts. The only way to convey these thoughts is by writing a good report."
From the NASA Technical Memorandum 105419 - Technical Report Writing
NASA Aerospace Technical Report server

There are five main stages of report preparation:

• Gathering the data (or developing the theory)
• Analyzing and sorting the results
• Outlining the report
• Writing the rough draft
• Revising the rough draft
• Writing a report

A report should be logically organised and clearly written. A complete report includes the following parts:

Introductory part

• Title page (note: the title should be clear description the contents)
• Summary
• Preface or foreword - including acknowledgements
• Table of contents
• List of Figures and Tables

Body of the report

• Introduction - background, aim of the report, structure of the report
• Main body - background theory, methods and results obtained
• Conclusions - discussions, conclusions and recommendations

Final part

• List of references - Hints on writing references
• Appendices

Writing Thesis
The purpose of a Ph.D thesis in science and engineering is to present the candidate's original research in a clear and logical way. It is a review of the work for a higher degree. Many universities have specific rules for theses. Check these as soon as possible and follow them!

Here are a few general hints:

• An overall plan for the thesis should be compiled as early as possible and discussed with supervisors. This plan should be discussed and modified where necessary, as research proceeds.
• It is a good idea for you to have a draft outline thesis plan together with a timetable pinned on a noticeboard in front of you so that at every moment you are aware of your progress and of your immediate goals!
• Start as soon as possible. Even starting with very rough notes for paragraphs or chapters can give a good psychological boost. Thesis writing does not necessarily have to start with chapter one. Write the easiest sections or chapters first.
• It is common for conclusions and introductions to be written last when you have a thorough awareness of the purpose and implications of your research.
• Use a word processo and take great care to protect every computer file with multiple backup copies, and not all stored at the same location. It is also a good idea to make periodic hard copies, i.e. printouts, of your work. Research data, notes and chapter drafts may represent several years intense effort and may be impossible to recreate if they are lost through some electronic, technical or other misfortune.
• Bibliographies should not be left until last. Using Personal Reference Systems these can mostly be compiled as the research progresses.
• Draft sections or chapters should be discussed with supervisors as early as possible. Supervisors have a duty to examine these carefully and critically and return them promptly. Candidates have a right to have considered feedback on whatever they show their supervisors.
• Supervisors should see chapters at every stage, from rough notes, to early drafts, to revised drafts, to the final version. They should also see drafts of the whole thesis as soon as possible. While they may have commented on individual chapters shown to them at different times, they may also suggest revisions when all the chapters are seen together in the context of the thesis as a whole.
• In science and engineering, candidates are often encouraged to publish the results of their research before their thesis is completed. This provides an excellent form of review. The candidate must indicate in the thesis which part(s) of it has (have) been previously published.

Writing References
The works cited page(s) is an aphabetical listing of all the sources you refer to in your paper. You must be precise in recording this information. Each type of entry, book, magazine, journal, newspaper etc., has a correct form but there are many different standards.
The following five basic elements describe a documentation and must be included:

• Person(s) or group responsible for the material documented. Usually an author, but can be an editor, translator, or organization.
• Title(s). Full title of the work you are citing.
• Amplifying information, to help identify or describe the work precisely. Name of editor or translator, edition, number of volumes in a multivolume work, title of a series.
• Publishing information. Place, publisher, and date.
• Portion of the document you are citing. Volume and page numbers if necessary.

On the Internet there are several citation guides for other Internet Sources. For example:

• Bibliographic Formats for Citing Electronic Information - based on Li and Crane's Electronic styles: A Handbook for citing electronic information (1997), by Information Today, Inc.
• Web Extension to American Psychological Association Style (WEAPAS) - proposed standard for referencing online documents in scientific publications.
• Citation Guide for Electronic Documents - a collection of electronic sources collected by IFLA.
• Guide for Citing Electronic Information - from Sarah Byrd Askew Library.
• Citing Internet Documents - from Queen´s University Library (Kingston; Canada)

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